Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension, Economics & Sociology

Performance of Primary Agricultural Credit Societies in Punjab, India

2026-05-30T12:14:27+00:00

Cooperative credit institutions are owned and operated by their members, primarily farmers, and aim to cater to the credit needs of the rural agricultural community. Cooperative credit institutions also play a crucial role in promoting financial inclusion in rural areas. Primary Agriculture Credit Societies (PACS) are the grassroots-level cooperative credit institutions that play a significant role in providing financial services and credit facilities to farmers and rural residents. The present study aims to evaluate PACS in Punjab. This study was conducted using secondary data collected from the Statistical Abstract of Punjab and the National Federation of State Cooperative Banks Ltd. (NAFSCOB) for the period 2003–2021. The overall findings of the study revealed that there was a decrease in the number of PACS in Punjab. Viable and potential number societies decreased over the study period. Paid-up share capital, reserves, deposits, and borrowings increased significantly, indicating improved financial strength of PACS. However, there were fluctuations in the trend of total reserves, with sharp increases in certain years. The agricultural loans showed a significant increase with a compound annual growth rate of 10.20 per cent, while the share of agricultural loans decreased over the period. It also revealed that outstanding agricultural loans increased substantially at a growth rate of 11 per cent. To strengthen PACS, the study suggests increased government support in meeting farmers’ credit needs, diversification of credit portfolios for marginal and rural farmers, and greater investment in technology and common service centres. It is recommended that to ensure better economic performance of the society, cooperatives must work transparently, and there should not be political interference in the working of PACS.

A Scoping Review of Participatory GIS and WebGIS Integration for Bridging the Socio-technical Gap in Community-based Agricultural Networks

2026-06-09T06:58:21+00:00

Participatory GIS (PGIS) and web-based GIS (WebGIS) have developed as influential but largely distinct approaches to agricultural development and community resource management. PGIS emphasises grounded, face-to-face processes that empower communities through local knowledge production, collective interpretation and shared decision-making. WebGIS, by contrast, provides technical capabilities for spatial data storage, analysis, visualisation and dissemination across wider user networks. Despite repeated calls for greater integration, the extent and nature of combined PGIS–WebGIS applications in agriculture remain insufficiently understood. This scoping review examines 164 studies to assess how PGIS and WebGIS are being linked in agricultural contexts. It develops a typology of integration levels: None, Sequential, Partial and Fully Iterative, and maps each study’s contribution to bonding, bridging and linking social capital. The findings reveal a clear divide. Many studies are either PGIS-oriented, with strong local participation but limited continuity beyond project settings, or WebGIS-oriented, with sophisticated technical infrastructures but limited community agency. Fully iterative models that embed community governance, two-way feedback and the co-creation of spatial data remain exceptionally rare. The review exposes a socio-technical gap in which features that strengthen social capital, including peer communication, collective validation and transparent data governance, are more common in PGIS and face-to-face designs but largely absent from dominant WebGIS and one-way digital platforms. Bridging this gap requires a shift in platform ownership and design philosophy, from expert-controlled information delivery towards community-governed spatial commons. The review proposes a conceptual framework for Participatory WebGIS and outlines a research agenda centred on justice, inclusion and institutional embedding.

Integrated Pest Management of Brinjal Shoot and Fruit Borer (Leucinodes orbonalis Guen.) through On-Farm Trials and Frontline Demonstrations

2026-05-29T10:37:47+00:00

The Brinjal Shoot and fruit borer (Leucinodes orbonalis Guen.) is one of the major insect pest of Brinjal. Significant yield losses due to shoot and fruit borers have been reported all over the world. The present study was conducted by Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Hamirpur, Banda University of Agriculture and Technology, Banda, during the Zaid seasons from 2022 to 2025 at farmers’ fields of Hamirpur district, Uttar Pradesh, to evaluate the effectiveness of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices against Brinjal shoot and fruit borer (BSFB) through On-Farm Trials (OFTs) and Frontline Demonstrations (FLDs). The OFTs and FLDs on brinjal for Brinjal shoot and fruit borer management technology comprising deep summer ploughing, Removal and destruction of infested shoots/fruits, erection of bird perches, monitoring of insects with pheromone trap, weed management, water management, NSKE 5 per cent, need-based application of Emamectin benzoate 5 SG @ 200g/ha in 500 L of water. The results demonstrate that using IPM technology in brinjal not only reduces BSFB population but also gives higher yield and net returns. Results revealed that the average BSFB incidence under IPM practices was significantly lower (13.78%) compared to farmers’ practices (30.45%), with a 54.8% reduction in pest infestation over the check. Frontline demonstrations further recorded 275 q/ha yield under IPM plots compared to 218 q/ha under non-IPM plots, with a 26.14 per cent increase in yield. Economic analysis of IPM demonstration on Brinjal revealed that total net return from IPM practices and farmers' practices were Rs 276500.00 and Rs 215350.00 /ha, respectively. Therefore, large-scale dissemination of IPM technology through Frontline Demonstrations, farmer trainings and extension activities is essential for enhancing productivity, profitability and sustainable brinjal cultivation among farmers.

An Empirical Analysis of Growth and Instability in Brinjal Production and Prices: A Time-Series Approach

2026-05-30T07:50:06+00:00

Brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) is an important vegetable crop in India, contributing significantly to food security, farm income, and agricultural sustainability. Understanding long-term trends in production and market prices is essential for informed policy formulation and efficient supply chain management. This study examines trends in its production, area, and yield in India (1978–2023) using FAOSTAT data from 1978 to 2023. The Compound Annual Growth Rates is 2.29% for cultivation area, 4.26% for production, and 1.92% for yield, respectively. These results reflect a stable agricultural environment for brinjal, with low volatility across these parameters. The study looks at trends in brinjal prices from 2016 to 2024 in the Chakdah market in West Bengal's Nadia District. The overall price CAGR is 3.97%; however, quarterly analysis reveals significant fluctuations: the second quarter (Q2, April–June) exhibits the highest CAGR at 16.13%, aligning with the peak harvest and the onset of the southwest monsoon, which brings optimal rainfall and temperatures enhancing yields, stabilising supply, and raising prices. Conversely, the fourth quarter (Q4, Oct–Dec) records the lowest CAGR at 6.80%, as winter and post-monsoon conditions diminish supply and reduce demand, leading to lower prices. Price instability, measured by the Cuddy–Della Valle Instability Index, is moderate in Q1, Q2 and Q4 due to climatic variability, seasonal production cycles, supply chain constraints, market dynamics, and agricultural practices, and Q3 shows low instability. Steady supply and price factors favour consistent commodity arrivals due to a stable production cycle. Price forecasts for 2025–2026 show a steady rise, despite seasonal and market fluctuations. Findings suggest revising pricing policies, boosting value addition, storage, and market diversification to strengthen brinjal production and efficiency.

Development and Implementation of a Need-Based Digital Literacy Training Program for Rural Women: Evidence from Haryana, India

2026-05-30T12:19:53+00:00

Background: Digital literacy is defined as the ability to access, understand and use digital technologies effectively for communication, information retrieval and participation in socio-economic activities. The increasing use of smartphones and internet services has highlighted the need for need-based digital literacy training programs to enhance the digital skills and socio-economic empowerment of rural women in Haryana.

Aims: The present study aimed to develop and implement a need-based digital literacy training program for rural women and to assess their participation and perception towards the training program.

Study Design: The study followed an experimental research design using a participatory training approach.

Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted in selected villages of Agroha and Barwala blocks of Hisar district, Haryana during the year 2023-24.

Methodology: A purposive sample of 50 rural women was selected on the basis of willingness to participate in digital literacy training and availability of smartphones. A structured training module was developed in consultation with subject experts based on the learning needs identified during the baseline survey. The ten-day training program included sessions on smartphone operations, communication platforms, digital payments, e-commerce applications, educational apps and cyber safety practices. Participation and perception of respondents were assessed using a three-point rating scale. Data were analyzed using frequency, percentage, mean scores and ranking techniques.

Results: The findings revealed that hands-on practice received the highest participation score (Mean = 2.82), followed by demonstration (Mean = 2.70). Among training topics, communication platforms recorded the highest participation (Mean = 2.85), followed by digital payment applications (Mean = 2.78). Respondents perceived the training as easy to understand (Mean = 2.80) and appreciated the clarity of instruction provided during the sessions (Mean = 2.75). The training program significantly improved familiarity and confidence of rural women in using smartphones and digital applications.

Conclusion: The study demonstrated that need-based and participatory digital literacy training programs can effectively enhance digital awareness and practical digital skills among rural women. Community-based digital literacy initiatives may play an important role in promoting digital inclusion and socio-economic empowerment among rural women.

Socioeconomic Assessment of NWFP-Based Livelihoods in Tribal Communities of the Bundelkhand Region, India

2026-06-01T09:23:29+00:00

Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFPs) play a crucial role in sustaining the livelihoods, food security, and socio-economic resilience of rural and tribal communities in Bundelkhand amid increasing environmental and economic uncertainties. The present study aims to analyze the socio-economic status of tribal populations and rural communities dependent on Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFPs) in four districts of Bundelkhand, India, namely Banda, Chitrakoot, Lalitpur, and Sonbhadra. Their economy depends widely on NWFPs to sustain the livelihoods of residing communities in semi-arid region of Bundelkhand where low erratic rainfall (250-600mm/year) hinders agriculture. Though region is blessed with diversity of natural resources available in residing forests, still community faces some challenges. Hence, the present survey study is based on primary data collected through field surveys by interviews from tribal people representing 10 per cent of total population from each district. The analysis of collected data and information indicate that a significant proportion of households i.e., about 45 per cent of community depend on NWFPs for income generation and subsistence needs, especially during agricultural lean periods. Study has compiled the information collected more than 300 respondents belonging age group 25-50 years old using structured questionnaires. It was found that despite importance of NWFPs in studied region, these products have remain underutilized due to policy, institutional constraints, low literacy levels, exploitation by middlemen, lack of awareness rights etc. Though, tribal women play a dominant role in the collection and selling of extracted products from trees such as tendu leaves, mahua flowers and medicinal parts in the local markets. However, issues such as lack of market access, inadequate infrastructure, and exploitation by intermediaries limit the economic potential of raw products other than timber. Additionally, traditional knowledge should be documented and evaluated to ensure sustainability and conservation awareness. The extension activities along with present surveys have been conducted to create awareness on value addition of procured raw products from forest such as ‘Mahua laddu’ has been prepared using flowers of Madhuca longifolia.

Participatory Identification and Assessment of Constraints and Opportunities in Dairy Production among Small Scale Farmers in Kericho County, Kenya

2026-06-02T12:41:31+00:00

Background: Dairy farming is the main source of livelihoods and food security, but milk production is low due to various constraints.

Aims: The aim of the current study was to identify and assess the constraints and opportunities in dairy production among small scale dairy farmers in Kericho County, Kenya.

Study Design: Participatory Action Research design was adopted for the study.

Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted in Ainamoi, Belgut and Bureti sub counties of Kericho County, Kenya, between November ,2024 and November 2025.

Methodology: All small-scale dairy cattle farmers, keeping 1-5 dairy animals, in the County were targeted. Interview schedule was used to collect quantitative data and focus group discussion guide was used to collect qualitative data from 397 participants in the three sub-counties. Quantitative data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 27. Descriptive statistics were utilized to document the socio -demographic characteristics of the participants based on their frequencies. Qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis and constant comparative methods. Qualitative findings were organized into themes, categories and codes and findings presented through narratives. 62.3% of participants were male, while 37.7% were female. 29.2% were aged 40–50 years and 26.5% aged 30–40 years. 43.4% had college/university education, 38.8% secondary education, and 15.3% primary education.

Results: Findings indicated that the main constraints identified were feed and input, financial, market, institutional and governance issues, infrastructure and transport constraints, climatic constraints, and knowledge and extension gaps. opportunities identified were; investment in feed systems, finance, markets, infrastructure, climate resilience, and extension services.

Conclusion: Constraints at the production node are interlinked and reinforcing impacting on low productivity, reduced profitability, and weak sustainability. unlocking production node potential requires integrated investment in feed systems, finance, markets, infrastructure, climate resilience, and extension services.

Growth and Trend Analysis of Area, Production, and Productivity of Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) in India

2026-06-05T12:27:02+00:00

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) has demonstrated remarkable commercial potential across diverse industries. It has been widely recognized for its rich phytochemical composition, including essential oils, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, and dietary fiber. This study aimed to estimate the Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) and analyze linear trends in area, production, and productivity of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) cultivation in India over a 30-year period. A quantitative, descriptive research study based on secondary time-series data employing linear trend analysis and CAGR computation. The study covered fennel cultivation across India, with particular reference to leading producer states — Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh — spanning the period from 1994–95 to 2023–24. Secondary time-series data (N = 30) were sourced from Indiastat, the Department of Agriculture (Rajasthan), and the Board of Revenue (Rajasthan). Three parameters — area (thousand hectares), production (thousand MT), and productivity (MT/hectare) — were analyzed using semi-log regression (linear trend analysis Y=a+bX) and CAGR, computed as CAGR = \((\frac{V_f}{V_i})^{\frac{1}{n}}-1\)

The average area, production, and productivity were 59.62 thousand hectares, 90.79 thousand MT, and 1.41 MT/hectare, respectively. Area grew at a CAGR of 6.89% (R² = 0.78), production at 8.73% (R² = 0.84), and productivity at 1.69% (R² = 0.68). Production exhibited the highest variability (CV = 0.78), while productivity remained relatively stable (CV = 0.17). A notable production surge was recorded in 2023–24, reaching 376.05 thousand MT over an area of 216.02 thousand hectares. Fennel cultivation in India demonstrated a consistent and statistically significant positive growth trajectory across all three dimensions over the 30-year study period. The production growth rate surpassing both area and productivity growth rates individually indicates a combined effect of increased land allocation and improved farming efficiency. The unprecedented 2023–24 surge warrants further investigation into its contributing factors and long-term sustainability.

Assessing the Influence of Rural Infrastructure on Market Access for Small Scale Green Gram Farmers in Tharaka North Sub County, Kenya

2026-06-08T12:57:19+00:00

Green gram (Vigna radiata) is an important drought-tolerant crop that contributes to food security and income generation among small-scale farmers in Kenya’s Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs). However, farmers in these regions face persistent challenges in accessing profitable markets. Although rural infrastructure such as roads, storage facilities, and transport services is widely recognized for reducing transaction costs and improving market integration, limited empirical evidence exists on its specific influence on market access in Kenyan ASAL contexts. This study examined the effect of rural infrastructure on market access among green gram farmers in Tharaka North Sub County using a cross-sectional survey of 387 randomly selected households. Market access was measured as a composite index and categorized into low, moderate, and high levels based on frequency of sales, distance to market, and price realization. A multinomial logistic regression model was used to estimate the effects of road type, road passability, transport availability, storage access, distance to market, land size, household size, and mobile phone ownership. The results show that distance to market is the strongest determinant of market access, reducing the likelihood of moderate access by 8.5% (RRR = 0.915, p < .001) and high access by 16.6% (RRR = 0.834, p < .001) per additional kilometer. Storage access within 5 km significantly increases the likelihood of moderate market access (RRR = 1.709, p = .024), while better road type relative to dirt roads enhances the likelihood of high market access (RRR = 1.620, p = .022). Mobile phone ownership more than doubles the likelihood of high market access (RRR = 2.078, p = .013), and land size significantly improves both moderate and high access levels. Road passability and transport availability are not statistically significant. The study concludes that market access in Tharaka North is primarily shaped by spatial and infrastructural constraints, particularly distance and road quality, complemented by storage access, digital connectivity, and farm size. Policy efforts should prioritize improving feeder road networks and expanding decentralized storage facilities to enhance smallholder market integration in semi-arid regions.

Simulation of the Effect of Sowing Date with the DSSAT (Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer) Model on Maize Grain Yield

2026-06-09T10:55:47+00:00

Background: Climate change, rainfall variability, and inappropriate sowing dates contribute significantly to low maize yields in Togo, highlighting the need to identify optimal planting periods using the DSSAT crop simulation model.

Aims: The sowing date is an agricultural practice that involves aligning the maize growth cycle with the rainy season. In recent years, this date has fluctuated due to interannual variability in the arrival of the first rains heralding the start of the agricultural season. Based on the DSSAT model (Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer), this study aims to estimate the optimal sowing date to meet the water requirements of Obatanpa maize grown in the Maritime and Plateaux regions of Togo.

Study Design: Thus, thirty-two years' (1990-2022) of climatic data from these two regions were input into the DSSAT model.

Place and Duration of Study: The study took place at the laboratory of the Institutional Economics Research Team (ERECI) at the University of Lome in Togo from January to March 2026.

Methodology: The methodology comprises two parts: (i) calibration, validation, and evaluation of the model; and (ii) seasonal analysis. The first part consists of comparing the observed values with those of the simulation. The second part consists of carrying out the seasonal analysis, which is the actual simulation that will determine the best sowing date for obtaining optimal yield.

Results: The results show that the model is robust and that 15 March in the Maritime and Plateaux regions of Togo is the most optimal of the five (5) sowing dates for Obatanpa maize, yielding 1,080 kg/ha. This date is followed by the fourth sowing date (April 30th) with a yield of 975 kg/ha; The third sowing date (April 15) yielded 958 kg/ha; the second sowing date (March 30) yielded 884 kg/ha; and the fifth sowing date (May 15) yielded 776 kg/ha.

Conclusion: The study recommends that producers of this maize variety in these two agricultural regions of Togo sow maize around 15 March.

Analysis of Growth and Instability in Marine Fisheries Production: Evidence from India and Andhra Pradesh

2026-06-09T12:00:44+00:00

Marine fish production in India has shown moderate growth, largely driven by mechanization, improved fishing technologies, expansion of fishing fleets and improved mari-culture techniques, although it remains subject to fluctuations due to seasonal variations, overexploitation of resources, and climatic factors. Marine shrimp, on the other hand, has emerged as a high-value export commodity, with India becoming one of the leading exporters globally; however, its production is relatively more volatile due to disease outbreaks, environmental changes, and market price fluctuations. This study examines the growth and instability in the production of marine fish and shrimp in India and Andhra Pradesh over the period from 1995–96 to 2024–25, employing the Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) and Cuddy–Della Valle Index (CDVI). To examine the trends in production of marine fish and shrimp at India level and Andhra Pradesh level, Compound Annual Growth Rates (CAGR) was worked out by using log-linear model. Instability in the production and export quantity and value of marine products was measured using the Cuddy–Della Valle Instability Index (CDVI). The findings revealed that marine fish production exhibited a statistically significant growth of 1.23 per cent at the national level and a higher rate of 5.51 per cent in Andhra Pradesh. In contrast, marine shrimp production did not register significant growth in India, whereas in Andhra Pradesh the marine shrimp production recorded a notable growth rate of 8.20 per cent during the study period. With respect to instability, marine shrimp production showed highest variability, with CDVI of 23.36 per cent in Andhra Pradesh and 13.25 per cent in India. This was followed by marine fish production, which exhibited instability levels of 11.71 per cent in Andhra Pradesh and 5.81 per cent in India. The findings underscore the need for sustainable resource management, climate-resilient practices, and risk mitigation strategies, particularly in high-value shrimp production systems, to ensure long-term stability and growth of the fisheries sector.

Development and Measurement of Utilization Pattern Index of ICT Tools in Mitigating Climate Change among the Farmers of Andhra Pradesh, India

2026-06-12T13:31:50+00:00

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have emerged as an important tool in supporting farmers to mitigate climate change through timely access to weather information, crop advisories, market intelligence, and climate-resilient agricultural practices. The present study was undertaken to develop and measure a Utilization Pattern Index of ICT tools in mitigating climate change among farmers of Andhra Pradesh during 2023–2026. The study was conducted in Srikakulam, Krishna, and Chittoor districts representing different Agro-climatic regions of Andhra Pradesh. A total sample of 240 farmers was selected through simple random sampling by following an ex-post facto research design. Initially, thirteen indicators were identified and subjected to relevancy testing by 30 judges. Based on weighted mean scores, nine indicators were Accepted for inclusion in the final index. The findings revealed that majority (67.92%) of the farmers belonged to medium level of utilization pattern, followed by low and high utilization levels. Perception of ICT benefits, digital literacy, and device utilization secured the highest index scores. The study further underscored the importance of strengthening digital literacy, improving information and communication technology (ICT) infrastructure, and enhancing agricultural extension services to facilitate the effective adoption and utilisation of ICT-based tools for climate-resilient agriculture. Moreover, the index developed in this study provides a robust and practical framework for assessing ICT utilisation among farmers and can serve as a valuable instrument for researchers, extension practitioners, and policymakers in the design, evaluation, and promotion of ICT-driven agricultural interventions.

Determinants of Access to Smartphone App-based Digital Agricultural Extension Services in India: Evidence from NSSO 77th Round

2026-06-13T07:07:32+00:00

Background: The advent of Smart Farming Technologies (SFTs) has revolutionised the agricultural sector in recent years. With the increasing penetration of smartphones across rural India, farmers now have greater access to extension services, daily market prices, market linkages, and other farming-related information. However, data relating specifically to SFT adoption in India remains limited. The only major secondary data source available is the 77th Round of the National Statistical Office (NSSO), which provides socio-economic and demographic information on farmers’ access to smartphone app-based digital extension services (in the Indian context, smartphone app-based digital extension services can be considered a proxy for the adoption of SFTs).

Aim: This study attempts to identify the socio-economic and demographic factors influencing farmers’ access to smart farming technologies, using smartphone app-based farming information services.

Study Design: The study uses the NSSO 77^th round, which is of Situational Assessment of Agricultural Households and Land and Livestock Holdings of Households in Rural 2019 (Ministry of Statistics & Programme Implementation, GOI, 2021). The study is based on 2,049 observations extracted from the NSSO database, filtered specifically to capture households utilizing digital extension services.

Methodology: The study uses a binary logit model with 0 and 1 categories for the dependent variable: 1 for farmers having access to smartphone app-based information and 0 for farmers having no access to smartphone app-based information.

Results: The marginal effect in the result shows that access to smartphone-based extension services is positively influenced by landholding size (0.0096), insurance coverage (0.105), education, female headship, and income (very negligible), while area under irrigation (−0.122) and belonging to socially disadvantaged groups (SC, OBC, others) reduce the likelihood of access. The Pseudo R-squared is 0.74, which suggests a strong model fit.

Conclusion: The results highlight that resource ownership, institutional access, and education significantly improve digital inclusion, whereas structural and social disparities continue to limit farmers’ access to smartphone-based extension services. This will be helpful for agriculturalists, policy makers and the government to frame farmer-centric policies for technology access and adoption.

Resource Use Efficiency in Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) Cultivation: Evidence from Kangra District, Himachal Pradesh, India

2026-06-13T12:08:18+00:00

Background: Efficient utilization of production resources in Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) cultivation is essential for enhancing productivity, profitability, and sustainable livelihood opportunities for farmers in Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh.

Aims: To analyse the input–output relationship and resource use efficiency in Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) cultivation in Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh.

Study Design: Cross-sectional farm-level study based on primary survey data.

Place and Duration of Study: Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh during the agricultural year 2023–24.

Methodology: Primary data were collected from 150 Tulsi growers selected through a multistage stratified random sampling technique. The Cobb–Douglas production function was employed to estimate the contribution of major production inputs to output. Marginal Value Product (MVP) and Marginal Factor Cost (MFC) analysis was used to assess resource use efficiency.

Results: Irrigation emerged as the only statistically significant determinant of Tulsi output with an elasticity coefficient of 0.935. Labour, land, fertilizer, and capital showed non-significant effects on production. Resource use efficiency analysis revealed overutilization of labour (0.42), land (-0.60), and fertilizer (-0.81), while irrigation (8.52) and capital (1.42) were underutilized. The sum of production elasticities (0.982) indicated decreasing returns to scale.

Conclusion: Efficient allocation of irrigation and capital resources can substantially improve productivity and profitability in Tulsi cultivation. Strengthening extension services and promoting scientific input management may enhance resource use efficiency among growers.