Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension, Economics & Sociology

Adoption of Labour-Saving Technologies in Selected Five Southern-District of Bhutan

2026-07-29T10:23:24+00:00

This study assessed the adoption of labour-saving agricultural technologies and the factors associated with their use across five districts in Bhutan. Data were collected in May and June 2024 from 1,142 farming households selected through a multistage sampling design. Descriptive statistics and probit regression were used to examine the adoption of power tillers, mini tillers, tractors, threshers, hullers, grass cutters, and rice millers. The pooled power tiller adoption rate was 21.9%, although adoption varied substantially among districts. Power tillers were the most widely adopted land-preparation technology, while machinery users generally preferred hiring services to individual ownership, particularly for power tillers and tractors. Reduced agricultural drudgery was the most frequently reported reason for adopting power tillers, accounting for 65% of adopter responses. High machinery costs were the principal barrier reported by non-adopters. Probit estimates indicated that cultivated area, educational attainment, family literacy, smartphone use, and the prevalence of the same technology within the local gewog were associated with adoption, although the direction and statistical significance varied across technologies. The strong association with local technology prevalence may reflect peer learning and improved access through machinery-hiring markets. The findings indicate that expanding affordable state-managed or privately managed hiring services, together with targeted financial support, operator training, and improved rural infrastructure, may facilitate broader and more inclusive access to labour-saving technologies among small-scale farming households in Bhutan.

Food Security Strategies of Farmers in a Disaster-prone Southwestern Coastal Region of Bangladesh

2026-07-30T13:13:10+00:00

Food security in coastal Bangladesh is increasingly threatened by climate change, making effective household food security strategies a critical policy concern. This study assessed the extent to which farmers in a disaster-prone coastal area of Bangladesh practised food security strategies, examined the relationships between those practices and selected socioeconomic and psychological characteristics, and identified the principal constraints affecting their implementation. A cross-sectional, descriptive correlational survey was conducted from January to June 2020 in Sarankhola Upazila, Bagerhat District. From a population of approximately 1,200 farm households across five villages, 120 farmers were selected using simple random sampling. Data were collected through a pre-tested interview schedule, supplemented by field observations and focus group discussions. The practice of food security strategies was measured using a 16-item scale (score range: 16–64), while problem confrontation was assessed using a 14-item scale. Pearson's product–moment correlation coefficient was used to test relationships at the 5% significance level. Food security strategy scores ranged from 22 to 55, with a mean of 41.12 (SD = 6.36). Most respondents (40.00%) demonstrated a medium level of practice, followed by high (36.67%) and low (23.33%) levels. Age (r = .211*), education (r = .260**), number of earning family members (r = .227*), farming experience (r = .201*), and communication exposure (r = .206*) were positively and significantly associated with the practice of food security strategies, whereas family size, farm size, annual income, organisational participation, and fatalism were not significantly associated. The principal constraints were the limited availability of stress-tolerant crop varieties, rising food prices, and crop damage caused by cyclones and tidal surges. Strengthening agricultural extension, improving access to climate-resilient crop varieties, and stabilising food prices may enhance household food security in disaster-prone coastal regions.

Development and Assessment of Ergonomic Technology Flyers for Drudgery Reduction in Rural Households

2026-08-04T11:34:54+00:00

Farm and rural women frequently perform agricultural and household activities under physically demanding and non-ergonomic conditions. This study aimed to develop and assess bilingual ergonomic technology flyers as extension communication materials for drudgery reduction. The study was conducted during 2025–26 at the Department of Resource Management and Consumer Science, I.C. College of Community Science, CCS HAU, Hisar. Thirty-five ergonomic technologies were identified, documented, and classified into five categories: household work (34.29%), educational work (20.00%), farm work (17.14%), animal husbandry work (14.29%), and industrial work (14.29%). Twenty-two bilingual flyers in Hindi and English were developed using Canva, with real photographs, simple language, and extension education design principles. The flyers were evaluated by 30 respondents comprising two faculty members, 11 farm women, and 17 students across 20 parameters using a five-point rating scale. Data were analysed using frequency, percentage, mean ± standard deviation, the Kruskal–Wallis H test, and Cronbach’s alpha. The overall mean score was 4.37 ± 0.67, corresponding to a ‘Very Good’ rating. Overall acceptability (4.58 ± 0.62), educational usefulness (4.55 ± 0.68), and overall usefulness (4.52 ± 0.63) received the highest scores. No significant difference was observed among respondent groups (H = 0.996, p = 0.608), and the assessment scale showed excellent internal consistency (α = 0.958). The findings indicate that the flyers were favourably received as extension materials for promoting ergonomic awareness and supporting drudgery-reduction communication.

Marketing Performance and Constraints of Dry Chillies in Virudhunagar District, Tamil Nadu, India

2026-08-05T08:59:05+00:00

Background: Dry chilli is an important commercial crop in Tamil Nadu, but farm returns are influenced by cultivation costs, marketing arrangements and price variability. This study assessed the production economics, marketing channels and major constraints in dry chilli cultivation in Virudhunagar District.

Methods: Virudhunagar District was selected purposively, and primary data were collected from 40 growers selected through simple random sampling in the study area. Costs, yield, prices, gross income and net income were estimated on a per-hectare basis. Marketing costs, margins, price spread and the producer’s share of the consumer price were examined for two channels. Garrett’s ranking technique was used to prioritise production, marketing and intermediary constraints.

Results: The total cultivation cost was ₹59,364.97 per hectare, comprising fixed costs of ₹6,394.83 and variable costs of ₹52,970.14. Average yield was 15.44 quintals per hectare. At a farm-gate price of ₹5,470 per quintal, gross and net incomes were ₹84,456.80 and ₹25,091.83 per hectare, respectively. Channel I reported a producer’s share of 74.19% and a price spread of 25.81%, whereas Channel II reported 81.14% and 18.86%, respectively. Labour scarcity, inadequate credit and disease were the main production constraints. Price fluctuation was the leading marketing constraint, while inadequate storage was the foremost problem reported by intermediaries.

Conclusion: The shorter marketing channel reported a higher producer share and lower price spread; however, the Channel II producer net-price calculation requires reconciliation before the efficiency difference can be confirmed.

Sandbar Farming and Livelihood Outcomes among Char Households in Northern Bangladesh

2026-08-07T06:32:23+00:00

Aims: This study compared the socio-economic characteristics, livelihood capital assets, livelihood strategies, and livelihood outcomes of sandbar and non-sandbar farmers in the char areas of northern Bangladesh.

Study Design: Cross-sectional comparative study.

Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted in Kaunia Upazila of Rangpur District, Bangladesh. Data were collected from October to December 2024.

Methodology: A total of 247 farmers, including 195 sandbar farmers and 52 non-sandbar farmers, were selected using stratified random sampling. Quantitative data were collected through face-to-face interviews using a structured questionnaire, complemented by focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Livelihood conditions were assessed using the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework. Descriptive statistics and independent-samples t-tests were used for data analysis.

Results: Sandbar farmers had significantly higher annual household income (BDT 529.47 ± 350.74 thousand), farm size (0.91 ± 1.10 ha), farming knowledge (28.09 ± 5.47), and social participation (12.63 ± 2.60) than non-sandbar farmers (P < 0.05). Human capital (P = 0.026) and social capital (P = 0.003) were also significantly higher among sandbar farmers, whereas natural, physical, and financial capital did not differ significantly. Resource-use typology showed that 99.2% of respondents depended primarily on natural resource-based livelihoods and 86.6% practised diversified livelihood strategies, with greater diversification among sandbar farmers. Although sandbar farmers recorded higher mean food security and environmental sustainability scores and a larger proportion of households in the high food security and high sustainability categories, these differences were not statistically significant (P = 0.161 and P = 0.109, respectively).

Conclusion: Compared with non-sandbar farmers, sandbar farmers demonstrated stronger livelihood assets. However, because this cross-sectional study identifies associations rather than causal effects, the findings should be interpreted cautiously. Strengthening extension services, technical support, access to quality inputs, credit, and market linkages may facilitate wider adoption of sandbar farming in the char areas of Bangladesh.

Profile, Training Perceptions, and Business Constraints of DAESI-Trained Agricultural Input Dealers in Thrissur, Kerala, India

2026-08-10T12:26:36+00:00

Background: Agricultural input dealers serve as accessible sources of farm information and advisory support, complementing formal agricultural extension services. However, limitations in their technical knowledge highlight the need for structured capacity-building programmes such as the Diploma in Agricultural Extension Services for Input Dealers (DAESI).

Aims: This study evaluated the Diploma in Agricultural Extension Services for Input Dealers (DAESI) programme in Thrissur district, Kerala, by describing the socio-personal and professional profile of trainees, examining their perceptions of the programme, and identifying constraints affecting their input businesses.

Methods: An ex post facto design was adopted. One hundred respondents were selected through simple random sampling from 300 trainees enrolled in eleven DAESI batches conducted between 2018 and 2022. Data were collected through personal interviews using a structured and validated interview schedule. Perception statements and business constraints were ranked using Garrett’s Ranking Technique.

Results: Half of the respondents were older than 55 years, 52.5% had completed high school, 92.5% were male, 95% were engaged in the business full-time, and 55% operated a family business. Course relevance and the classes arranged received the highest perception rank, with a mean Garrett score of 76.07. Gains in knowledge, skills, and self-confidence ranked second, with a mean score of 67.30. The leading business constraints were low profit margins on chemical fertilisers, with a mean score of 73.87; high operational costs, with a mean score of 63.80; and delayed fertiliser supply during peak cropping seasons, with a mean score of 63.35.

Conclusion: Respondents perceived the DAESI programme as relevant and beneficial for developing advisory competence. However, commercial, operational, supply-chain, and regulatory constraints continued to affect the management of agricultural input dealerships.

Profitability Effects of Climate-smart Agriculture Practices on Smallholder Dairy Farms in Kenya: A Comparative Analysis of Kisii and Uasin Gishu Counties

2026-08-11T11:30:42+00:00

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is widely promoted to enhance productivity, resilience, and mitigation in livestock systems, yet robust evidence on its profitability impacts remains limited, particularly for smallholder dairy farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. This study evaluates the profitability effects of adopting dairy CSA practices in Kisii and Uasin Gishu Counties, Kenya, representing contrasting agroecological and market contexts. The analysis focuses on five CSA practices: feed management, manure management, improved breeding, animal health management, and milk value addition. Dairy profitability is measured using gross margin percentage, a simple and operational indicator of farm-level economic performance. Using cross-sectional household survey data, the study applies a Multinomial Endogenous Switching Regression Model (MESRM) to estimate the causal effects of adopting single and combined CSA practices while accounting for observable and unobservable selection bias. Results are validated using a Multivalued Inverse Probability Weighted Regression Adjustment (MIPWRA) estimator. The findings show that adoption of CSA practices significantly increases dairy profitability in both counties, with substantially larger gains associated with bundled adoption compared with single practices. The full CSA package yields the highest profitability effects, although impact magnitudes vary across regions due to differences in farm size, production systems, and institutional support. Counterfactual estimates indicate that non-adopters would realise considerable profitability gains if they adopted CSA practices, highlighting substantial unrealised economic potential. The results therefore confirm that CSA adoption can deliver economic benefits alongside climate resilience in smallholder dairy systems. Policy efforts should therefore prioritise scaling integrated CSA packages while addressing region-specific constraints to improve adoption and profitability outcomes.

Socio-Economic Profile of Self-Help Group Members in Udaipur District of Rajasthan

2026-08-12T13:47:31+00:00

This study assessed the socio-economic profile of women Self-Help Group (SHG) members in Udaipur District of Rajasthan during 2022-23. Udaipur District was selected purposively, and Kotra and Rishabhdeo blocks were chosen because they had the highest numbers of SHGs. Five Gram Panchayats from each selected block were sampled, one SHG was selected from each Gram Panchayat, and 12 respondents were selected from each SHG, resulting in a total sample of 120 respondents. Data were collected with an interview schedule prepared in the local language and pre-tested among non-sampled respondents. The profile variables included age, education, family occupation, social participation, annual income, training exposure, economic motivation, extension contact, and mass media exposure. The findings showed that 58.33% of the women members belonged to the middle-age group. A combined 54.17% were illiterate, could read only, or could read and write. Agriculture + labourer and Agriculture together constituted the main occupations of 91.67% of respondents. Medium levels were reported for social participation (67.50%), annual income (76.67%), economic motivation (67.50%), extension contact (57.50%), and mass media exposure (65.00%). The largest proportion of respondents (37.50%) had received more than three days of training. Overall, the findings provide a descriptive socio-economic profile of the sampled women SHG members in the selected areas of Udaipur District.

Determinants of Paddy Price Formation in Developing Rice Economies: A Critical Review of Global Evidence

2026-08-06T06:29:38+00:00

Paddy, the unmilled grain of Oryza sativa L., is the principal source of cash income for several hundred million smallholders across Asia and Africa, and the price received at the farm gate is a central determinant of rural welfare, food security and cropping decisions. Despite an extensive empirical literature, understanding of how paddy prices are actually formed in developing rice economies remains fragmented across sub-disciplines that seldom communicate. This critical narrative review synthesises global evidence on the determinants of paddy price formation, integrating research on world-market integration, trade and procurement policy, vertical and spatial price transmission, market power, information frictions, seasonality and storage, grain quality and varietal attributes, production costs and climate variability. Literature was identified through structured searches of web-based scholarly indexes and the Crossref metadata database, supplemented by citation tracking and authoritative institutional sources, and was appraised for methodological quality, topical relevance and the strength of the evidence-to-claim link. The synthesis indicates that farm-gate paddy prices are jointly shaped by conditions transmitted from thin and policy-sensitive world markets, by domestic trade and procurement interventions that deliberately insulate or redistribute price signals, and by margins arising from transaction costs, imperfect competition and quality sorting along the value chain. The evidence is strongest for long-run cointegration between farm, wholesale and retail prices and for consumer premiums attached to specific grain-quality attributes. It is weaker and more contested for claims that observed transmission asymmetries reflect trader market power, and for the transferability of seasonality and information-intervention findings drawn largely from other cereals. Persistent gaps include the scarcity of farm-gate rather than wholesale analyses, limited African and long-run evidence, and inadequate attention to how climate variability is reshaping price determinants. The review argues for farm-gate-anchored, mechanism-explicit and regionally balanced research to inform price policy in rice-dependent economies.

AI-Driven Climate-Resilient Farming Systems for Smallholders: A District-Level Framework from O.R. Tambo, South Africa

2026-08-14T14:11:59+00:00

Smallholder farmers in O.R. Tambo District face increasing climate-related stress from unpredictable rainfall, frequent droughts, and rising temperatures, which threaten yields and livelihoods. This review examines how artificial intelligence (AI), ranging from remote sensing and decision support systems to genomic prediction, can support farmer adaptation and strengthen future resilience. Rather than asking whether AI can work, the paper considers how AI must be designed, delivered, and governed so that local farmers can use it effectively. Three practical contributions are presented: a farmer-centred AI adoption model, the Jeenv real-time advisory architecture, and the LOCAL data governance framework. The review emphasises low-bandwidth delivery, human mediation, and equity, and proposes staged pilots linking immediate advisories with breeding and soil investments. Rigorous mixed-methods evaluation and equity metrics, including a Social Inclusion Index, are recommended to support rapid and transparent learning. Comparative lessons from Kenya, Ethiopia, and Nigeria inform practical choices for O.R. Tambo. The paper concludes with operational recommendations for district planners, extension services, and researchers to translate the potential of AI into practical impact.