Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension, Economics & Sociology

Commercial Floriculture in Kerala, India: Major Cut Flowers, Production, Marketing and Business Prospects

Manju M. George, Sunil Abraham Thomas — Sat, 26 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Commercial floriculture in Kerala must reconcile the biological suitability of tropical ornamentals with the exacting requirements of a perishable, quality-differentiated market. This critical narrative review examines the principal cut-flower groups relevant to the state, their production systems, postharvest constraints, marketing arrangements and business prospects. Scholarly and institutional evidence published from 2000 to 22 July 2026 was selected through targeted live searches, reference tracing and bibliographic verification. Kerala-specific experiments and enterprise studies were distinguished from international physiological research, market surveys and policy documents. Anthurium, tropical orchids and heliconia have the clearest local research foundations, whereas commercial opportunities for rose, gerbera, carnation and other cut flowers require more explicit matching of cultivar, microclimate, infrastructure and buyer specifications. Evidence from coconut-based heliconia systems supports selective diversification, but does not establish universal intercrop profitability. Historical anthurium budgets indicate commercial feasibility under particular conditions rather than contemporary investment returns. Across crops, vegetative growth, harvested flower numbers and laboratory vase life are inadequate substitutes for accepted stems, reliable delivery and realised margins. The main constraints are therefore interconnected: planting-material quality, disease prevention, climate management, grading, crop-compatible temperature control, aggregation, demand uncertainty and working capital. National floriculture exports and state development allocations provide context but cannot quantify Kerala's cut-flower production or export competitiveness. The most defensible near-term pathway is phased, buyer-linked development, supported by cultivar-specific production protocols, shared services with transparent governance, and records that connect farm practices to customer outcomes. Priorities include a species-resolved enterprise baseline, multi-location trials incorporating full costs, commercial-chain postharvest validation and prospective evaluation of cluster programmes. Kerala has credible opportunities in differentiated tropical flowers and associated services, but sustainable expansion depends on demonstrating dependable saleable quality rather than assuming that climatic suitability or promotional support guarantees business success.

Profiling of Agricultural Graduates of Uttar Pradesh, India

Tue, 22 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Agriculture plays a vital role in India’s socio-economic development and requires skilled human resources capable of addressing emerging challenges in agricultural productivity, sustainability, rural development, and technological advancement. Agricultural graduates constitute an important human resource for translating scientific knowledge into research, extension, agribusiness, entrepreneurship, and other professional activities. The present study was undertaken to profile agricultural graduates of Uttar Pradesh with respect to their socio-economic, educational, communication, and psychological characteristics. A descriptive research design was adopted, and the study was conducted at all four State Agricultural Universities of Uttar Pradesh. A total of 140 agricultural graduates pursuing M.Sc. and Ph.D. programmes were selected through simple random sampling, with 35 respondents from each university. Data were collected through personal interviews using a structured interview schedule and analysed using appropriate statistical techniques. The findings revealed that the majority of respondents were young, male, and from rural backgrounds, with satisfactory to high academic performance. Most respondents had completed their schooling through the Hindi medium and belonged to marginal and small farming households, with agriculture being an important family occupation. Information access was strongly oriented towards digital sources, with smartphones and the internet used daily by all respondents, while interaction with extension personnel was comparatively limited. Formal training exposure related to natural farming was low, and social participation was also limited. The majority of respondents exhibited medium levels of information source utilisation, library exposure, achievement motivation, and scientific orientation. The findings highlight the need to strengthen practical and experiential learning, training opportunities, student–extension linkages, professional participation, and career guidance to improve the competence and employability of agricultural graduates.

The Role of Agricultural Extension Services in Promoting Climate-Smart Agriculture Adoption among Smallholder Farmers in Mwingi West sub-county Kitui County, Kenya

Tue, 22 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Agricultural extension services provide smallholder farmers with knowledge, technical guidance, and advisory support that can facilitate the adoption of climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices. This study examined the role of agricultural extension services in promoting CSA adoption among smallholder farmers in Mwingi West Sub-County, Kitui County, Kenya. A cross-sectional mixed-methods design was used. Quantitative data were collected from 200 randomly selected farmers through structured questionnaires, while qualitative evidence was obtained from 10 agricultural extension officers and 10 focus group discussions with farmer groups. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics and the chi-square test of independence. Significant associations were reported between CSA adoption and access to agricultural extension services, the source of extension information, type of extension support received, frequency of extension contact, perceived usefulness of extension services, CSA practices promoted through extension, and farmers’ perceived influence of extension services on adoption. Most respondents (82.0%) had access to extension services. Extension agents were the main information source (46.0%), and technical training was the most frequently reported support (38.0%). Conservation agriculture (30.0%), agroforestry (22.0%), and water harvesting (19.0%) were the leading practices promoted through extension activities. Nearly half of respondents (48.0%) reported that extension services had increased CSA adoption to a great extent. The findings indicate that accessible, practical, and regular extension support is closely associated with CSA adoption in the study area.

Business Model Canvas for Viticulture Business: An Integrated Framework for Value Creation, Delivery and Capture

Jay V. Kawale, M. S. Pisal, A. A. Gadhave, P. S. Deokate, P. A. Shitole — Tue, 22 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Viticulture represents a commercially intensive form of horticultural enterprise in which profitability is influenced by a combination of production efficiency, varietal choice, technological adoption, post-harvest management, logistics, quality assurance and access to appropriate markets. Consequently, the economic performance of a grape enterprise extends considerably beyond vineyard-level production. The present study focused on the Business Model Canvas (BMC) as a strategic framework for examining the manner in which value is generated, transferred and monetised across the viticulture business. The analysis considered the nine elements of the BMC, namely key partners, key activities, key resources, value propositions, customer relationships, customer segments, channels, cost structure and revenue streams, and related them to the operational characteristics of the grape business. The analysis highlights the importance of an interconnected business ecosystem comprising growers, Farmer Producer Organisations, grower associations, research institutions, variety developers, exporters, importers, packhouses, logistics providers, government agencies and retailers. The value delivered to different stakeholders similarly extends beyond the physical grape and encompasses product quality, varietal differentiation, food safety, consistency, traceability and supply reliability. Fresh table grapes remain the principal source of business income; however, premium cultivars, branding, private labels, processing and licensing can provide additional avenues for value realisation. The study establishes that the BMC can be effectively adapted to viticulture to understand the grape enterprise as an integrated agribusiness system involving coordinated value creation, value delivery and value capture.

Validation of Traditional Cotton Harvesting Practices through an Ergonomically Modified Harvesting Bag: A Community-Based Study among Farm Women in Rajasthan, India

Wed, 23 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Cotton is a major cash crop in Rajasthan, where manual picking places a substantial physical workload on farm women. This community-based study evaluated an ergonomically modified cotton harvesting bag against the traditional practice of using a gunny bag or cloth tied to the body. Front-line demonstrations were conducted with 120 farm women in Barlajsar, Pulasar, and Hariyasar Jatan villages of Sardarshahar tehsil, Churu district, during the 2023–24 and 2024–25 kharif seasons. Data were collected through structured field surveys and assessment of work efficiency, comfort, stress reduction, body-load reduction, cotton-picking output, wage returns, and user acceptability. On a pooled mean basis, 81.0% of participants reported higher work efficiency and 70.0% reported greater comfort with the modified bag. The harvesting rate increased from 4.9 to 5.4 kg per hour, corresponding to a 10.2% increase in work efficiency and an additional 4.0 kg of seed cotton per 8-hour working day. At a harvesting rate of Rs. 8.0 per kg, pooled daily earnings increased from Rs. 313.6 to Rs. 345.6, equivalent to an additional Rs. 960 over 30 working days. The modified bag was also associated with improved load distribution, reduced perceived physical stress, and high willingness to adopt. These findings support its practical utility as a drudgery-reducing option for manual cotton harvesting among farm women in the study area.

Assessment of Post-Emergence Herbicides in Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.)

M. M. V. Srinivasa Rao, K. Tejeswara Rao, M. Swathi, K. Lakshmana — Wed, 23 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) is one of the most important commercial cash crops in India, contributing substantially to the production of sugar, jaggery, and ethanol and to rural livelihoods. Weed infestation during the early crop growth period remains a major biotic constraint, limiting cane productivity and profitability across tropical regions. Manual weeding has become increasingly difficult because of severe agricultural labour shortages and rising wage rates, necessitating effective, low-dose post-emergence herbicide combinations. A two-year on-farm trial (OFT) was conducted during the Rabi seasons of 2023–24 and 2024–25 in the Vizianagaram district of Andhra Pradesh to evaluate the field-level efficacy of modern post-emergence herbicides in sugarcane. Three treatments were evaluated: farmer’s conventional weed management practice (T1), Tembotrione @ 287.5 ml/ha applied at 25–30 days after planting (T2), and a tank-mix combination of Tembotrione @ 287.5 ml/ha + Halosulfuron methyl @ 100 g/ha applied at 25–30 days after planting (T3). Total weed density, cane yield, and economics (gross returns, net returns, and benefit-cost ratio) were compiled and assessed. The pooled analysis of the two-year trial indicated that the combined application (T3) recorded the lowest weed density (10.76 weeds/m²), the highest cane yield (86.59 t/ha), the highest gross income (₹2,07,468/ha), the highest net income (₹71,123/ha), and a superior benefit-cost ratio (1.52). Conversely, the farmer’s practice (T1) resulted in the highest weed infestation (49.18 weeds/m²) and the lowest cane yield (63.36 t/ha). The combined post-emergence herbicide treatment enhanced cane yield by approximately 36.7% over the farmer’s conventional practice while substantially maximising farm profitability. These findings indicate that the combination of Tembotrione and Halosulfuron methyl provides a broad-spectrum, highly effective post-emergence weed management option that enhances sugarcane productivity in North Coastal Andhra Pradesh while reducing heavy dependence on manual labour.

Socio-economic Drivers of Information Sourcing and Use among Rural Households in Ondo State, Nigeria

B. A. Adegbite, O. O. Fasina, T. O. Bello, A. Ighoro — Thu, 24 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Information sourcing is central to communication and livelihood decision-making among rural households, yet the use of available information channels may vary with socio-economic and behavioural characteristics. This study examined the socio-economic and behavioural factors associated with information sourcing among rural households in Ondo State, Nigeria. A multistage sampling procedure was used to select 125 respondents from five villages in Akure South and Ifedore Local Government Areas. Data were collected with a structured questionnaire and analysed using descriptive statistics and chi-square tests. The findings showed that extension workers were the most frequently used and most accessible information source, while neighbours, non-governmental organisations, family members, and community leaders also remained important. Digital channels, including mobile phones, radio, television, and internet services, were used less prominently, reflecting constraints related to electricity, cost, network access, and usability. Significant relationships were observed between information sourcing and age, marital status, education, occupation, household size, and home electrification (p < 0.05), whereas sex was not significant at the 5% level based on the reported p-value of 0.051. Perceived behaviour was also significantly associated with information sourcing (χ² = 29.070, p = 0.023). The study indicates that information sourcing among rural households is shaped by a combination of socio-economic conditions, behavioural perceptions, and infrastructural access. Improving reliable energy access and integrating trusted interpersonal channels with appropriate digital options may strengthen rural information dissemination and use.

Constraints Faced by Women Entrepreneurs in Agribusiness of Thrissur District, Kerala, India

Annlya Joy, K. A. Sunanda — Sat, 26 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Background: Women’s participation in agribusiness contributes to employment generation, household income and enterprise development. However, women entrepreneurs often encounter financial, technical, production and marketing constraints that may affect the effective operation and sustainability of their enterprises. Understanding these constraints at the local level is important for identifying the major difficulties experienced by women engaged in agribusiness and for informing appropriate support measures.

Aim: The present study aims to analyse the major constraints faced by women entrepreneurs in agribusiness in Thrissur District.

Study Design: A descriptive, ex-post facto design was adopted.

Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted in Kerala, India, among women entrepreneurs from October 2025 to February 2026.

Methodology: The study covered 40 women entrepreneurs, with 10 respondents selected from each of Chalakudy, Mukundapuram, Thalappilly and Thrissur taluks. The sampling frame comprised 350 eligible women entrepreneurs registered under SSI/WIP units and engaged in agribusiness. Data were collected using an interview schedule. Garrett’s ranking technique was applied to convert respondents’ rankings into scores and determine the relative importance of the reported constraints.

Results: Lack of subsidy ranked first (70), followed by non-availability of bank loans in second place (50) and high interest rates in third place (30). Lack of skills in handling and maintenance ranked first (78), followed by perishability in second place (66), non-availability of inputs and labour in third place (57), lack of technical know-how in fourth place (50), shortage of working capital in fifth place (43), electricity shortage in sixth place (34), and lack of related skills in seventh place (22). Non-availability of raw materials ranked first (75), followed by non-availability of equipment in second place (60), high labour costs in third place (50), non-availability of skilled workers in fourth place (40), and labour management in fifth place (25). Fluctuation in demand ranked first (80), followed by low profit in second place (68), storage problems due to perishable products in third place (63), lack of knowledge about marketing strategies in fourth place (58), problems with middlemen in fifth place (50), lack of knowledge about appropriate product markets and customers in sixth place (43), existing competition in seventh place (33), and transportation in eighth place (15).

Conclusion: The findings identify prominent constraints across financial, technical, production and marketing dimensions, with lack of subsidy, lack of handling and maintenance skills, non-availability of raw materials and fluctuation in demand ranking highest in their respective categories. The findings highlight the need for better financial assistance, skill development, production support and effective marketing facilities to improve the performance and sustainability of women-led agribusinesses.

Assessing the Effectiveness of Farmers' Information and Advice Centres (FIACs) in Strengthening Decentralised Agricultural Extension Services in Bangladesh

Gour Gobindo Das, Md. Raju Ahmad, Piyush Kanti Sarker, Mohammad Abdul Kaium — Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Decentralised agricultural extension services are vital for enhancing farmers’ access to information, providing more locally responsive extension, improving farmer participation and communication, delivering more relevant advice, and potentially achieving better agricultural outcomes. Bangladesh has implemented Farmers’ Information and Advice Centres (FIACs) under the National Agricultural Technology Program (NATP) as decentralised extension service systems. An FIAC is a one-stop service centre that provides agricultural extension services to remote farming communities across the crop, livestock and fisheries sectors at union level. This study evaluated the effectiveness of FIACs in providing agricultural advisory services and farmers’ patterns of service use across Bangladesh. Data were obtained from 100 randomly selected FIACs established under NATP-I and NATP-II through structured questionnaires, administrative records and field observations. Descriptive and comparative data were used to analyse trends in service use from 2016 to 2019. The results indicated a substantial increase in the total number of service contacts. Physical visits increased from 662 to 2,302 per FIAC under NATP-I, while NATP-II FIACs recorded 1,953 visits per FIAC in 2019–20. Mobile phone conversations showed the largest increase, rising from 373 to 9,521 contacts per FIAC under NATP-I; NATP-II FIACs recorded 5,737 phone calls per FIAC in 2019–20. Farmers regularly sought advisory services on pest and disease control, recommended fertiliser application, access to quality seed and climate-resilient crop-production methods. FIACs played an important role in disseminating information on government support programmes, facilitating access to small agricultural equipment and ICT tools, promoting farmers’ organisations, and strengthening links among farmers, extension professionals and community organisations. The study also showed that institutionalisation of FIACs within the Department of Agricultural Extension is important for their functioning. However, shortages of quality equipment, uneven location-specific distribution and growing service demand remain major operational issues. FIAC effectiveness may be enhanced through standardised facilities, expanded ICT-enabled advisory services, better equipment access and stronger institutional support. The results suggest that decentralised agricultural advisory centres may improve the efficiency of public extension services and support sustainable agricultural development in Bangladesh.

Assessing the Role of Rural Youths in Agricultural Production; A Challenge to Agricultural Extension Services in Noni Sub Division, NW Region of Cameroon

Kinsam James Shuweh, Loveline Enjoh Forbang, Tange Denis Achiri — Wed, 30 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This study assessed the role of rural youths in agricultural production and the associated challenges for agricultural extension services in Noni Sub Division, North West Region of Cameroon. Data were collected through structured questionnaires, interviews, focus group discussions and field observations involving youth farmers, with 120 youths selected and 115 questionnaires reported as suitable for analysis. Quantitative responses were summarised using percentages and tables, while qualitative information was organised thematically. The findings showed that 52.5% of respondents were male, 52.5% were aged 20–30 years and 60.8% were married. Youth participation was highest in crop farming (69.1%), followed by farm labour (35.8%). Perceptions of agriculture were mixed: 29.1% regarded farming as an activity for school dropouts, whereas 62.5% considered it a very high income-generating activity. The main constraints to participation were lack of government incentives (79.16%), limited market access (68.3%) and inadequate training and extension services (62.5%). The study indicates that strengthening youth-oriented extension support, improving access to relevant agricultural innovations and providing practical training may encourage wider participation in agricultural activities. The findings also emphasise the importance of local infrastructure and stronger rural–urban linkages in supporting agricultural livelihoods and employment opportunities for rural youths. These results provide locally grounded evidence on the extension-service challenges affecting youth participation in Noni Sub Division.

Attitude of Stakeholders in the Agricultural Extension System towards ICT Use in Punjab, India

Ayushi Pal, Hashim Zahoor, Shivani Jha — Sat, 03 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are increasingly used in agricultural extension to improve access to timely and relevant information. This study assessed the attitudes of key stakeholders towards ICT use in Punjab’s agricultural extension system and examined relationships between selected socio-personal characteristics and attitude. An ex post facto research design was adopted. The sample comprised 60 agricultural scientists, 104 extension personnel, and 225 farmers selected through multistage sampling. Attitude was measured using a validated 20-item Likert scale with acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.84). Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and Spearman’s rank correlation. Across stakeholder groups, favourable attitudes towards ICT predominated, with scientists showing the highest favourable attitude levels, followed by extension personnel and farmers. Education (r = 0.451, p < 0.01), training exposure (r = 0.482, p < 0.01), and ICT possession (r = 0.493, p < 0.01) were significantly and positively associated with attitude, while organisational participation showed a positive association (r = 0.286, p < 0.05). Age showed a negative but non-significant association (r = −0.142). The findings indicate a generally favourable behavioural orientation towards ICT across Punjab’s agricultural extension stakeholders, although the intensity of attitude varied among groups. Strengthening digital literacy, improving access to ICT resources, and providing need-based training may support more effective ICT-enabled agricultural extension.

Developing Agritourism Business-model Archetypes: A Multiple-case Study from Western Tamil Nadu, India

Balaji Parasuraman, M. Prahadeeswaran, S. K. Rajkishore, S. Jayasuriya — Mon, 05 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Aims: The objectives of this study were (1) to understand the business configurations and operational practices of selected agritourism enterprises in western Tamil Nadu; (2) to identify common business patterns and develop the empirically derived agritourism business-model archetypes; and (3) to assess the indicative financial performance of the identified archetypes.

Study Design: An exploratory multiple-case study design was used for this research.

Study Area and Period: The study was carried out in 10 operational agritourism farms in western Tamil Nadu, India, from May to August 2026.

Methodology: Data were collected through field visits and semi-structured interviews with enterprise owners/operators. Nine business-model components were analysed using the Business Model Canvas and a cross-case comparison was conducted to identify recurring practices and develop five model archetypes. The financial performance was evaluated using Benefit-Cost Ratio, Payback Period, Net Profit Margin and Return on Investment.

Results: Ninety per cent of enterprises reported farm tours and recreational activities, and 80% reported food services, educational programmes and farm-product sales. Around 70% had community partnerships and 60% had accommodation facilities. Five archetypes were created: Community-Integrated Agritourism, Eco-Farm Stay, Educational and Day-Trip, Livestock and Interactive Farm, and Wellness and Nature-Retreat. Under the study assumptions, BCR ranged from 1.25 to 1.73 and ROI ranged from 30.5% to 73.3%.

Conclusion: The results revealed variations in the configurations of agritourism businesses and showed that recurring combinations of agricultural and tourism resources could be identified as business-model archetypes. The BMC-based framework offered a structured foundation for comprehending and designing context-specific agritourism business-model archetypes.

Reported Changes in Yield, Income and Member Welfare Associated with Farmer Producer Company Membership in Tamilnadu, India

Sankri Karthikeyan, Anand Karthikeyan — Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Farmer Producer Companies (FPCs) have been promoted in India since 2003 to help small and marginal farmers overcome diseconomies of scale in input, credit, technology and output markets, but commodity-level evidence on the changes experienced by their members remains limited. This exploratory, descriptive multi-case study documents member-reported changes in yield and net income before and after the incorporation of five functioning FPCs in Tamil Nadu that were incorporated between 2004 and 2014, covering ten commodities in eleven commodity-FPC cases. Data were collected in April–July 2015 as part of a doctoral study through focus group discussions and personal interviews with 154 member-farmers, who contributed 282 respondent-commodity records because several members grew more than one commodity. Commodity-wise mean yield and net income per acre were compared using simple percentage analysis. Mean net income was higher after incorporation in all eleven cases, by 15.81 per cent (Erode coconut) to 720.00 per cent (thinai), and mean yield was higher in all cases, by 2.22 per cent (areca nut) to 136.50 per cent (guava). In nine of the eleven cases, the percentage change in income exceeded that in yield, a pattern consistent with, but not proof of, gains from collective marketing and reduced intermediation; the data cannot separate these from price movements, inflation or cost changes. Members also reported changes in farm practice, household welfare and organisational capacity, which differed across the five FPCs. Because the data are recall-based and nominal, come from purposively selected and relatively successful FPCs, and lack a non-member comparison group, the findings are descriptive case evidence of reported change, not estimates of causal impact. They suggest that support to FPCs should give collective-marketing capability at least as much attention as input supply and production technology, and that future assessments should use prospective designs with comparison groups.

Socio-personal and Economic Determinants of Knowledge and Adoption Levels among Goat Keepers in Middle Gujarat, India

M. N. Jegoda — Thu, 08 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Goat husbandry plays a pivotal role in supporting livelihood and economic security for rural landless, marginal, and small farmers. This study evaluates the socio-personal and economic determinants governing knowledge and adoption levels of standard goat management practices among 240 goat keepers selected across Dahod and Kheda districts of middle Gujarat. Empirical analysis revealed that the majority of goat keepers were middle-aged (64.58%) and had primary-level education (52.50%). Dahod district showed significantly higher knowledge and adoption levels than Kheda district, which exhibited low adoption rates owing to structural constraints and a higher proportion of landless labourers. Socio-economic analysis indicates that goat rearing remains highly viable for marginal and smallholders, yielding positive Benefit-Cost (B:C) ratios of 1.43 and 1.13, respectively, whereas landless keepers had a B:C ratio of 0.71. Correlation and multiple regression analyses indicate that landholding, extension contact, and mass media exposure are highly significant predictors of both knowledge acquisition and technology adoption, whereas larger flock sizes managed under purely extensive grazing are negatively correlated with the implementation of advanced practices. Strategic policy interventions emphasising technical guidance, veterinary services, and formal market linkages are recommended to improve livelihood outcomes.

A Study on Challenges of Houseboat Tourism in Punnamada Lake of Alappuzha District, Kerala, India

R. Navya, V. Divya — Mon, 12 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Kerala’s backwaters provide a setting for houseboat tourism, particularly in Alappuzha district. This study assessed the challenges encountered by houseboat owners operating on Punnamada Lake, with attention to economic, financial, political, environmental and waste-management dimensions. Primary data were collected from 60 houseboat owners selected through simple random sampling, using a structured interview schedule administered in person. Responses were examined using percentage analysis, an index method based on a five-point Likert scale and Henry Garrett ranking. The findings indicate that owners reported constraints across all five dimensions. Within the economic category, inadequate docking spaces received an index of 95. Tourism seasonality affecting cash flow was the most prominent financial challenge (index 97), while inadequate government support was the leading political challenge (index 97). Seasonal changes in weather patterns recorded the highest environmental index (97), and inadequate regional waste-management infrastructure received the highest waste-management index (98). The Garrett ranking identified waste-management infrastructure as the highest-priority concern, followed by government support, tourism seasonality, docking-space availability, water hyacinth and off-season maintenance costs. The findings also reflect concerns regarding operating expenses, regulatory conditions and the effects of water hyacinth on navigation and maintenance. Improved waste-disposal and docking facilities, coordinated institutional support and management of aquatic weeds may help address these constraints. The results provide a respondent-based assessment of challenges affecting houseboat operations in the study area.

Analysis of the Profitability of Pepper Production and Varieties Grown among Smallholder Farmers in Benue State, Nigeria

Zacharias Ternenge Nyiatagher, Stephen Aondoaseer Ashikegh — Wed, 14 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Pepper cultivation provides an income opportunity for smallholder farmers, but information on the varieties grown, production practices and farm-level profitability in Benue State, Nigeria, remains limited. The study analysed the profitability of pepper production and varieties grown among smallholder farmers in Benue State, Nigeria. The study provided an opportunity to determine the profitability of pepper production, assess the planting methods or production practices, identify the varieties of pepper grown, the factors influencing the adoption of hybrid varieties of pepper and the constraints on pepper production in the study area. A multistage sampling technique was employed in the selection of 240 respondents for the study. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire administered to the respondents in the study area. The data collected were analysed using descriptive statistics and budgetary analysis. The findings on socio-economic characteristics of the respondents revealed that the majority (63.4%) of the sampled respondents were aged 31–60 years, with a mean age of 41.7 years, 67.5% were females, 67.1% were married, 76.7% had more than five years of farming experience, with an average farming experience of 11 years, 52.5% had household sizes greater than six persons, the mean household size was 7.2, 81.7% had received some form of formal education, the mean monthly income was ₦77,791.67 (USD 58.57) per household head, and 55.4% of the respondents were members of cooperatives. Pepper growers in the study area cultivated a mean farm size of 1.1 hectares, majority (57.5%) practised intercropping, 50.0% engaged in pepper farming to generate income and meet family needs, 85.5% used agrochemicals in pepper farming, 76.7% planted one seed per hole, 51.3% of land used for pepper farming was sourced from family holdings. The commonly grown pepper varieties in the study area were: Atarodo (77.5%), Bird's eye chili (72.5%), Sombo (70.0%), Tatashe (65.0%) and Habanero (60.0%). The main factors influencing the adoption of hybrid pepper varieties in the study area include: the cycle of seed saving (78.8%), high initial cost of seeds (73.8%), capital-intensive input packages (71.3%), lack of rural irrigation infrastructure (66.3%), complexity of management (61.3%), weak extension-to-farmer network (58.8%) and perceived market and processing misalignment (57.5%). Pepper production was profitable in the study area with the intercrop grower earning a profit of ₦445,349.39 (335.31 USD) per hectare per season, while the sole-crop grower earning a profit of ₦435,658.70 (328.02 USD) per hectare per season. The rates of return of 1.91 and 2.09 for pepper-intercrop and pepper-sole crop enterprises implies every ₦1.00 invested in pepper production generates revenues of ₦1.91 and ₦2.09 for the intercrop and sole crop pepper growers respectively. The major constraints in pepper production in the study area include: pests and diseases, poor quality seeds, lack of technical knowledge, high costs and insecurity, perishability and seasonality as well as limited government support. The study recommended that the Federal and State Governments should devise and implement policies to provide financial assistance, incentives, empowerment programmes and training with minimal or no collateral requirements and reasonable repayment periods to encourage pepper production in the study area.